In his book "Anthropology of Death", Vincent Thomas analyzes the ethnological meanings of death as it separates one from his/her society and culture. In this context, the crossing of the Acheron becomes "a lost" of symbolism (holism) or the disturbance of established values and norms; even so, the weakening of social pylons. No ethnic group or society celebrates life's departure as a true gain individually and collectively. Because men are creators (of society) and shaped by society, it is reasonably understandable that they would choose to avoid this rigorous and funestral path as a way to sustain the anthropological equilibrium of organized life. However, being stupefied by the power of nature, the majority of human beings would prefer being trampled upon or surrendered to death (to repeat Dr. David Hawkins' terminology) .
What would be your ideal death? hey, you never know!
Wednesday, September 23, 2009
Friday, September 11, 2009
Improving Minrities Health Care in United States
When comparing the health of African-Americans to the Euro-Americans, there is a
relative disadvantage in terms of mortality and morbidity; many diseases have
remained the same or in some cases have increased among African-Americans
(Mullings, 1989). The history of public health in United States has been very
discriminatory. Public health interventions _ vis-à-vis African Americans _
have been modeled based upon bio-ethnicity and cultural differences. Thus, the
social context in which that population is living has always been ignored.
Despite the disproof of race-as-biology, many "scientists" continue to use
genetic variations to explain racial differences (Goodman, 2000); the syphilis
study in Macon County, Alabama is a vivid example. Socio-economic factors
appear to be powerful drivers of racial disparities in health. Lets focus on
the relationship between social inequality and health inequality as suggested by
David Williams and review some key actions that are needed to improve minority
health status in United States.
Improving the environmental factors among minorities is likely to improve their
health status. According to the National High School center, about one million
students drop out from High School every year, from which over 70.0% are
minorities. The Institute of Education Sciences reported that less than 30% of
minorities were conferred a college degree in 2003. Only 46% of African
American students and 47% of Hispanic students who enrolled in four-year
institutions in 1995-95 completed their degrees within six years in comparison
to 67% of whites and 71% of Asians (Swail, 2008). The lack of academic and
professional achievements among minorities lower their social economic status
(SES) and standard (white collar job) into the marketplace.
In April 2009, the Department of Labor reported that about 9.0% of the active
population were unemployed. The minorities (Black and Hispanic) unemployment
rate was almost three times higher than the non-Hispanic Whites. In the
construction and extraction occupations, where the majority of minorities work,
(particularly in urban environment), the rate of unemployment in April 2009 was
about 20.0% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). David Williams asserts that
"low SES male and disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups are differentially exposed
to economic marginalization and separation form the labor force". In fact, the
rate of white collar jobs among native born minorities' college graduates is
significantly lower is comparison to Asians and non-Hispanic Whites. As far as
the immigrants, Hispanics and Blacks (the Loas and Cambodians) have a higher
rate of poverty and a lower SES than non-Hispanic White born and many Asians
decent groups.
Rosenbaum (2005) suggests that racial disparities in access to health care and
outcomes appear pervasive because it affects a variety of health conditions and
health care settings. The U.S Health care system has been highly privatized and
favored discretions to entrepreneurs while marginalizing poor and minorities.
Although the civil rights movement played a major role in improving minorities'
health status, but the gap between those who can afford a decent health
insurance and the minorities who are covered under Medicaid is still wide. In
fact, even when minority patients have entered the health care system, they are
less likely to receive the same level of care than the non-Hispanic Whites
(Rosenbaum, 2005). In 2006, only 48 million Black and minorities (Hispanic,
Cambodians, Mexicans and other) had an employer-based health insurance when
comparing to 68% of non-Hispanic Whites. In contrast, for that same year, over
30 million minorities were covered by Medicaid for only 11.8 million
non-Hispanic Whites (CDC, 2007).
Health care utilization is also an ambiguous issue among minorities. Although
there are many affordable and even free health care services/programs in urban
environments, just a few Blacks, Hispanics and poor Whites take advantage of
them. David Williams suggests that language and other cultural barriers are the
major causes for lower health care utilization among minorities. Consequently,
they have the lowest life expectancy rate and the highest mortality rate in the
nation.
All policy interventions aiming to improve the health status of minority in
United States should take into account "the historical and cultural factors that
shape the experiences and living conditions of various social groups" (Williams,
2005). The implementation of programs that would increase academic achievement
among minorities along with the annihilation of racial barriers that prevent
minorities (mostly African Americans) from excelling in the market place are
likely to reduce their stress level and increase their social economic status.
More efficient health insurance policies, better health care and the improvement
of their environmental settings are also likely to shorten the health inequality
among minorities.
Literature cited:
Leigh Mullings. Inequality and African-American health Status: Policies and
Prospects. W. Van Horn ed., Madison. University Institute of Race and
Ethnicity, 1989.
Goodman Allan H. Why Genes Don't Count (for Racial Differences in Health).
American Journal of Public Health. Vol. 90, No. 11. pp. 1699-1702.
Scott Swail Watson, Redd Kenneth E. and Perna Laura W. Retaining Minority
Students in Higher Education: A framework for success. [San Francisco, CA]:
Jossey-Bass]: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ©2004.ISSN 0884-0040
Williams David R. The Patterns and Causes of Disparity in Health. Rutgers
University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London. 2005 ISBN 0–8135–3578–6
Rosenbaum Sara, Teitelbaum Joel. Addressing Racial Inequality un Health Care.
Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London. 2005 ISBN
0–8135–3578–6
The MRTG, New York.
relative disadvantage in terms of mortality and morbidity; many diseases have
remained the same or in some cases have increased among African-Americans
(Mullings, 1989). The history of public health in United States has been very
discriminatory. Public health interventions _ vis-à-vis African Americans _
have been modeled based upon bio-ethnicity and cultural differences. Thus, the
social context in which that population is living has always been ignored.
Despite the disproof of race-as-biology, many "scientists" continue to use
genetic variations to explain racial differences (Goodman, 2000); the syphilis
study in Macon County, Alabama is a vivid example. Socio-economic factors
appear to be powerful drivers of racial disparities in health. Lets focus on
the relationship between social inequality and health inequality as suggested by
David Williams and review some key actions that are needed to improve minority
health status in United States.
Improving the environmental factors among minorities is likely to improve their
health status. According to the National High School center, about one million
students drop out from High School every year, from which over 70.0% are
minorities. The Institute of Education Sciences reported that less than 30% of
minorities were conferred a college degree in 2003. Only 46% of African
American students and 47% of Hispanic students who enrolled in four-year
institutions in 1995-95 completed their degrees within six years in comparison
to 67% of whites and 71% of Asians (Swail, 2008). The lack of academic and
professional achievements among minorities lower their social economic status
(SES) and standard (white collar job) into the marketplace.
In April 2009, the Department of Labor reported that about 9.0% of the active
population were unemployed. The minorities (Black and Hispanic) unemployment
rate was almost three times higher than the non-Hispanic Whites. In the
construction and extraction occupations, where the majority of minorities work,
(particularly in urban environment), the rate of unemployment in April 2009 was
about 20.0% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). David Williams asserts that
"low SES male and disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups are differentially exposed
to economic marginalization and separation form the labor force". In fact, the
rate of white collar jobs among native born minorities' college graduates is
significantly lower is comparison to Asians and non-Hispanic Whites. As far as
the immigrants, Hispanics and Blacks (the Loas and Cambodians) have a higher
rate of poverty and a lower SES than non-Hispanic White born and many Asians
decent groups.
Rosenbaum (2005) suggests that racial disparities in access to health care and
outcomes appear pervasive because it affects a variety of health conditions and
health care settings. The U.S Health care system has been highly privatized and
favored discretions to entrepreneurs while marginalizing poor and minorities.
Although the civil rights movement played a major role in improving minorities'
health status, but the gap between those who can afford a decent health
insurance and the minorities who are covered under Medicaid is still wide. In
fact, even when minority patients have entered the health care system, they are
less likely to receive the same level of care than the non-Hispanic Whites
(Rosenbaum, 2005). In 2006, only 48 million Black and minorities (Hispanic,
Cambodians, Mexicans and other) had an employer-based health insurance when
comparing to 68% of non-Hispanic Whites. In contrast, for that same year, over
30 million minorities were covered by Medicaid for only 11.8 million
non-Hispanic Whites (CDC, 2007).
Health care utilization is also an ambiguous issue among minorities. Although
there are many affordable and even free health care services/programs in urban
environments, just a few Blacks, Hispanics and poor Whites take advantage of
them. David Williams suggests that language and other cultural barriers are the
major causes for lower health care utilization among minorities. Consequently,
they have the lowest life expectancy rate and the highest mortality rate in the
nation.
All policy interventions aiming to improve the health status of minority in
United States should take into account "the historical and cultural factors that
shape the experiences and living conditions of various social groups" (Williams,
2005). The implementation of programs that would increase academic achievement
among minorities along with the annihilation of racial barriers that prevent
minorities (mostly African Americans) from excelling in the market place are
likely to reduce their stress level and increase their social economic status.
More efficient health insurance policies, better health care and the improvement
of their environmental settings are also likely to shorten the health inequality
among minorities.
Literature cited:
Leigh Mullings. Inequality and African-American health Status: Policies and
Prospects. W. Van Horn ed., Madison. University Institute of Race and
Ethnicity, 1989.
Goodman Allan H. Why Genes Don't Count (for Racial Differences in Health).
American Journal of Public Health. Vol. 90, No. 11. pp. 1699-1702.
Scott Swail Watson, Redd Kenneth E. and Perna Laura W. Retaining Minority
Students in Higher Education: A framework for success. [San Francisco, CA]:
Jossey-Bass]: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ©2004.ISSN 0884-0040
Williams David R. The Patterns and Causes of Disparity in Health. Rutgers
University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London. 2005 ISBN 0–8135–3578–6
Rosenbaum Sara, Teitelbaum Joel. Addressing Racial Inequality un Health Care.
Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London. 2005 ISBN
0–8135–3578–6
The MRTG, New York.
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